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FOR GrAMMAI 





W. W. MURRA.Y. 



LIBRARYO^CONGRESS. 

Chap. Copyright No._ 

Shelf.XTlS5 

r=Vt9 8 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Handbook for Teachers. 



A COURSE IN 



MANUAL TRAINING 



FOR 



GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 



BY 

W. W. MURRAY. 




ROCHESTER TWO COhtS MECEIVED 

Rochester Athen.eum and Mechanics Institute. 



SCRANTOM, WETMORE & CO. 



SECOND COPY, 



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^V« 



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V* 



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58388 



Copyright. 1897 

by the 

ROCHESTER ATHEN/EUM AND MECHANICS INSTITUTE 

ROCHESTER. 



?/f ^' c- 



DESCRIPTION OF THE DESK TOP. 



The desk-top was designed to meet the needs of 
grammar and private schools. It can be clamped to 
an ordinary school desk, or a shelf, and be released 

by a single turn of a 
thumb-screw. 

The desk-top con- 
sists of a board six- 
teen inches wide and 
twenty-four inches 
long, with a recess at 
the back, which is 
fitted with blocks 
and racks of various 
forms for holding the 
tools in their proper 
places. It is pro- 
vided with a stop, 
which is used for 
holding the wood 
while planing. This 
stop, when not in 
use, can be dropped 
down flush with the surface, and the top may then be 
used as a drawing board. 

The right hand end is fitted with a shooting-board 




ADJUSTING DESK TOP. 



Mamuil Trainincr Course 



— a device for holding pieces of wood while the edges 
are being planed — this is provided with an attach- 
ment which prevents the tipping of the plane, thereby 
insuring true work. 

At the right hand, and attached to the under side, 
is a shallow drawer, this is intended to hold the 
drawing instruments, sandpaper-block, sandpaper and 

nails. A T-square 
is held in place — on 
the underside — by 
means of rabbeted 
cleats and a spring. 
The following is 
a list of the tools: 
— Measuring rule, 
knife, plane, chisel, 
tr3^-square, marking- 
gauge, hammer, nail- 
set, brad-awl, gimlet, 
pliers, clamp, bench- 
hook, compasses, trij- 
angles, T-square, 
thumb-tacks and 
sandpaper-block. 
AT WORK AT DESK TOP It is uot nccessarj' 

to provide a saw for each desk-top. A table or shelf 
arranged with three common mitre boxes and three 
saws will answer for a lar2:e class. 







1 '^C 


% 



For Grannnar Schools. 5 

The following tools will be required for occa- 
sional use: 

3 — 10 inch back saws. 

I — 18 " panel saw (11 points to the inch). 
3 — 2^^ " screw-drivers. 
3 — y^ " handled auger bits. 
I — 6 " 2nd cut flat file with handle. 
I Washita oil stone, mounted. 
I Small oil can. 

3 Mitre boxes 2^ inches wide inside by 2}4 
mches deep. 




MODELS FOR DESK TOP COURSE. 



Manual Training Co7irse 



INTRODUCTION. 



This hand-book is not intended as a manual for 
self-instruction, it is simply an arrangement of facts 
and suggestions relating to the tools and exercises 
involved in this series of models, to supplement notes 
taken by the pupil-teacher, which, it is hoped, may 
be of some assistance to the teacher in her efforts to 
encourage habits of industry and observation. 

To the teacher who aims at proficiency, the 
knowledge of the work, the right use of tools, and 
acquaintance with the materials used is indispens- 
able, and the only way to obtain this knowledge 
is by practical personal experience under an in- 
structor. It cannot be acquired from -books. 

The course of exercises described in this liand- 
book is adapted to pupils during the last two or three 
years in the grammar schools. Courses, which will 
involve the use of fewer tools, can be arranged to 
suit the physical and mental capacity of children of 
the lower grades. 

Children love to construct, and this points to a 
practical means of conveying instruction. But work 
for children must be of such a nature as will lead 
them to feel that it is real zvork, not a pretense at it. 
The course should be a series of useful articles, hav- 
ino; a distinct educational value. 

In planning this course the aim has been to design 
such models as would be of value from the boy's 



For Grammar Schools. 7 

point of view; to make each model an article of use; 
to give practical applications of a few geometrical 
problems to actual work, and to afford the teacher a 
means of translating many perplexing problems in 
arithmetic and plane geometry. 

In the hands of a conscientious teacher, the work 
will extend further than the makino; of models; 
intellectual and moral results will be considered as 
important as mechanical skill. 

Drawing, in order to interest the boy, must show 
some tangible results, therefore, the teacher should 
take advantage of every opportunity to show the 
value of "something" to define the form and propor- 
tions of the objects to be made. All work should be 
done from drawings. 

The hammer and pliers used in the desk-top work 
were selected with a view to introducing light metal 
work. 

NOTES AND SUGGESTIONS. 



Lumber: — When ordering lumber, write dimen- 
sions thus: 12 pieces of dry white pine ^ in. by 2]A, 
ins. by 15^ ins. Specify quality, when clear lumber 
is wanted, as follows: free from knots, shakes or sap. 
When ordering lumber for the models, have the 
wood cut yV i"ch wider than the width as given 
under the head of rough stock, this will allow for 
planing. 



8 Mainial Training Course 

Nai/s: — Nails with large flat heads are known as 
common nails. Nails used for fine work have small 
heads and are called finishing nails. 

When ordering nails, give length, number of wire 
and state whether common or finishing nails are 
wanted. See pages 69 and 71. 

Example. — 2 lbs. of 3/^ inch finishing nails No. 18. 

Screivs: — When ordering screws, give length of 
screw and number of wire. 

Example. — 2 doz. \ inch screws No. 6. 

Screws vary in size from I/4 inch No. o to 6 inch 
No. 30. See page dj. 

The term nnviber as applied to screws and wire 
nails refers to the lu ire gauge or the diameter of the 
body of the screw or nail just below the head. 

Sandpaper : — Sandpaper is sold by the sheet or 
quire. No. i is the grade used in this course. For 
further information relating to sandpaper see page 
62. 

Glue: — Use the liquid glue. Two or three small 
cans will answer for a large class. 

Emery Clot/i: — To remove rust from the tools use 
No. 00 emer}' cloth and machine oil. 

For the drawings and for marking lines on the 
wood, use a pencil of medium grade. It must be kepi 
sharp. Soft pencils with blunt points should not be 
tolerated. 

Pupils should measure their wood to test dimen- 
sions before proceeding to work it up. 



For Graininar Schools. 9 

It is not safe to test the keenness of a sharpened 
tool by running the finger lightly across the edge. 
If the edge appears white and rounded it may be 
regarded as dull ; if the edge is invisible when held 
up against the light, it is sharp. 

The sharpening can be done b}- a practical man, 
at small cost. 

Tact must be exercised in deciding the degree of 
accuracy to be expected from each individual pupil. 
Very often what a boy of ten years can accomplish 
may be difficult for one of twelve. Be guided by 
the mental and physical powers, rather than the age. 

Do not insist on the repetition of the same model 
more than three times at the outside. The principle 
involved may be given in another form. 

Guard yourself against giving any more help 
than is absolutely necessary. 

Use technical terms. Do not say ^^ thing"' fo7- mark- 
ing-gauge nor " business " zvhen you mean try-square. 

Insist on cleanliness and neatness and that each 
tool, when not in use, be kept in its proper place. 

If "chip-carving" is introduced it should be per- 
mitted only on such articles as have been constructed 
by the pupil. 

When the pupil's work has been "accepted" by 
the teacher, a neat label should be pasted on, and on 
this label should be stated the number of the model 
and its name ; the name and age of the pupil. 

The articles should be regarded as the propert}' 
of the makers. 



lo Manual Training Coiir-se 



MODEL I. 

A Flower Pot Stand, 

The first exercise involves the use of more tools 
than many of the other models, but it has been 
placed first in the series not only because it is the 
easiest, but for the reason that there are certain prin- 
ciples which lie at the foundation of manual training 
that should be taught at the beginning. 

It gives the t3'pical use of the most important 
tools, and it shows the pupil the significance of accu- 
racy of measurement. 

The drawing for this model and model No. 2 may 
be prepared for the pupil, or by him, according to 
the discretion of the teacher. 

The teacher can simplify the work and avoid con- 
fusion, by giving the pupil the material necessary for 
the two standards onlv, which should be completed 
before giving out the pieces for the slats. 

Tools used: — Rule, plane, try-square, compasses, 
knife, file, saw, hammer, nail set, and centering clamp.* 

Rough stock: — 4 pes. of pine J/( in. by i in. by I2}4 ins. 
" " — 2 " " )^ in. by I %^ in. by 6 ins. 

Nails: — 16 nails, j^ in. No. 20. 

* The centering clamp is a device for holding the standard at right 
angles to a line from which the curved line is struck. 



Foi'' Grammar Schools. 



II 




12 Manual Training Course 

MODEL II. 

A Form. 

This is <iforin upon which the strips for the curved 
cross-pieces in model No. 3 are bent — after soaking 
in water — and secured until dry. 

To find the center from which to describe the 
curved lines, follow the method shown in Fig. 2. 
Draw the line H K, Fig. 2, to equal line A B, Fig. 3. 
Bisect FI K in L. Let L M equal C D, Fig. 3. Bisect 
M H and M K, and produce the bisecting lines until 
they meet in P. With P as a center and P M the 
radius, draw the curve H M K. 

The radius for the concave edge of the for7)i will 
be the distance from G to D, Fig. 3, less than the 
radius P M, Fig. 2. 

In order to make this problem interesting and 
clearly understood, the teacher might have the pupil 
make any three points — not in a straight line — on the 
blackboard, then show how to locate the center from 
which to draw a circle that will pass through the 
three given points. 

This problem should be worked out on heavy paper 
or card-board. The figure may be cut out and used 
as a pattern for drawing the lines on the piece of 
wood intended for the pupil's model. 

Tools used : — Knife and file. 

Rough stock : — I piece of pine ]^ in. by 2^ in. by 
12 in. 



For Grammar Schools. 




14 Manual Training Coicrse 

MODEL III. 

Frame for a Vine. 

This frame is made of thin basswood. The up- 
rights are three narrow pieces fastened together at 
the base with tine copper wire. 

The method of joining the parts at the junction of 
the uprights and cross-piece is termed halving, or 
half-lap joint, as shown in isometric view, Fig. 4. 

Inasmuch as this is the pupil's first lesson in draw- 
ing, he need not attempt to make a drawing of the 
completed piece, but merely draw two views of the 
upright as in Fig. 5. After the drawing has been 
completed, the pupil should be given the material 
necessary for the part draivn. When the upright 
pieces are cut out, fastened together and the lower 
end pointed — as shown in the drawing — the pupil 
may make the drawing for the cross-pieces as in Figs. 
6 and 7. The pieces should be marked out, cut 
to the proper length and ends notched, but the joints 
must not be cut until the pieces are dry and have 
been removed from the form. 

Tools 2tsed : — Try-square, knife and pliers. 

Rough stock : — 3 pieces of basswood ]i in. by }i, in. 
by 20 in. 
" — I piece of basswood ]i in. by ^8 in. 
by 12 in. 
" " — I piece of basswood yi in. by Vq in. 

b}/ 7 in. 

Note. — For a description of the method of bending wood, see 
page 30. 



Foi- Graniniar Schools. 



15 




Detail of Upright and 
Cross Piece ?'c>r Vine Frame- 



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1 6 Manual Training Coiu'se 



MODEL IV. 

Hexagonal Back for Calendar. 

The hexagon is made of thin basswood and is 
nsed as a back for a small calendar. The pupil should 
make a drawing of this model, showing two views as 
in Fig. 8. To construct the hexagon, draw a circle 
5 in. in diameter, set olf the radius around it and join 
the points, as in Fig. 9. The radius of a circle goes 
around the circumference as a chord six times. 

The calendar is fastened to the hexagon with the 
aid of narrow ribbon. 

Tools used : — Compasses, knife, gimlet or Y^ in. bit, 
and plane, which is used to smooth the edges. 

Rougli stock : — i piece of basswood ]'i in. by 51-8 in. 
by 5)s in. 



For Graiinnar Schools. 



17 




1 8 Manual Trainiiio; Coiwse 

MODEL V. 

A Bandilore, 

The origin of the bandilore is unknown, though 
some say it was invented to amuse an East Indian 
princess. It was brought in 1790 from Bengal to 
England, where it became quite fashionable under 
the name of Quiz. Moore says that his earliest verses 
were composed on the use of this toy. The bandilore 
consists of two discs and a hub, which are joined at 
the center, and having a string wound between the 
discs. The player takes one end of the string and 
allows the bandilore to fall, revolving as the string 
unwinds. Just before it reaches the end of the string 
he gives it a quick jerk upwards, and the spin it has 
acquired will then wind the string in the opposite 
direction and cause the toy to ascend. The discs are 
made of thin basswood and the grooved hub between 
them is of pine. 

As the circles of this exercise are marked from a 
pattern which leaves nothing to indicate the centres 
of discs, it is necessary, before the model can be com- 
pleted, to lay this aside and take up the next exer- 
cise. The discs are secured to the hub with the aid 
of glue and nails. 

The pupil should make a drawing showing a side 
view and section, as in Fig. 10. 

Tools used: — Knife, tile, and hammer. 

Rough stock: — 2 pcs.of basswood yi in. by 4 in. by 4 in. 
" " — I piece of pine y% in. thick by 1 in. 
by I in. 

Nails: — 4, Y^ inch nails. No. 20. 

The Handle for Bandilore. Make drawing of 
handle, as in Fig. 11, which shows the different 
stages in the formation of a round. 

Tools used : — Knife, hie, and brad-awl. 

Rough stock:--\ pee. of poplar 1/ in. by ^^ in.b3'4ins. 



For Grainuiar Schools. 



19 



S«=1ron On L.n« A-B. 



WMm//////M}//y'»y)>»7///, /M/ZW/ZTX ■ i« 




isrsra(^«., £■* S^clc5e, Comfala 



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Ficj IQ 



20 Manual TrainiiiQ- Course 



MODEL VI. 

A Centering Gauge. 

The centering-gauge is constructed for the pur- 
pose of locating the centers of discs in Model No. 5. 

The drawing should be made full size, and show- 
two views, as in Fig. 12. The method of construct- 
ing the angle in the stock of the centering-gauge is 
shown in Fig. 13. 

The blade is secured to the stock b}^ gluing and 
nailing with round head brass nails. 

Tools used. — Plane, try-square, compasses, knife, 
Hie, saw, awl, and hamtner. 

Rough stock: — i piece ]/{, in. b}- 2^ ins. by 6 ins. 
" " — I piece ^ in. by i in. by 7 ins., pine. 

Nails: — ^ in. No. 18, round head brass nails.*- 

*Escutcheon pins. 



For GrauiDiar Schools. 



21 



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Hq IZ.. 



ric^ 13, 




■:■/■■■ 



2 2 Manual Training Conrse 

MODEL VII. 

A Plumb Rule. 

The plumb-rule is a narrow board with parallel 
edges having a straight line drawn through the 
middle, and a string carrying a metal weight attached 
at the upper end of the line. It is used by brick- 
layers, carpenters, etc., for determining a vertical. 
The metal weight attached to the end of a plumb- 
line is called a plumb-bob. 

Level is the term applied to surfaces that are 
parallel to that of still water or perpendicular to the 
direction of the plumb-line. 

The simplest form of a leveling instrument is that 
of a straight-edge, and plumb-rule united in the form 
of a letter L; they must be exactly perpendicular to 
each other, then, when the plumb-rule is vertical the 
other ruler is horizontal or level. 

The spirit level shows the exact level by means of 
a bubble of air. 

The plumb-rule is a very important tool, and 
great care should be taken to make it perfectly 
parallel. The plumb-bob is of lead, and the guard 
near the base and in front of the cord is of brass wire. 

Make the drawing half or three-quarter size, show- 
ing two views, as in Fig. 14. In drawing the parallel 
lines, which represent the edges of the plumb-rule, 
use compasses and ruler, and follow the method 
shown in Fig. 1 5. 

Fig. 16 shows the dimensions and shape of the 
wire guard. 



For Gram]uar Schools. 



Plumb Role 



nc,. 16. 



24 Maniial Training Course 

Use heavy thread for the line. The bob should be 
of lead and weigh about an ounce. 

Tools 2ised: — Plane, marking-gauge, try-square, 
compasses, knife, file and pliers. 

Rough stock: — I piece of pine ^^ in. by 2^^ ins. by 
15 ins. 

Wire: — One piece of No. 19 brass spring wire 
2 ins. Ions:. 



MODEL VIIL 

A Bench Hook. 

The bench-hook is a tool similar to that used in 
the desk-top outfit. In the drawing for this model 
the pupil should be taught to construct the rectangle 
with the compasses and ruler as in Fig. 18. Make 
the drawing half or three quarter size, as in Fig. 17. 

Tools used: — Plane, saw, gimlet, screw-driver and 
chisel. 

Rough stock: — I piece of pine }i in. by 4 ins. by 
814 ins. 
" " — I piece of pine Yq in. by i]/i ins. by 

• 8^^ ins. . 
Scj-ezvs: — 4 screws %^ in.. No. 6. 



For Graiumar Schools. 



B«nch HooK. 



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Hq 16. 



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F'.q' l7. 



26 Manual Training Cotirse 

MODEL IX. 

A Window Screen. 

The drawing of this model, which should be full 
size, need only show two views as in Fig. 19. The 
upright pieces in this frame, as in sash, doors, blinds, 
and panel work are called stiles, the horizontal pieces 
are called rails. The method of joining the stiles 
and rails of this model, by cutting half the depth of 
the wood away from each, is termed half-lapping, or 
the half-lap joint. See isometric view of joint in 
Fig. 20. 

The manner of joining the stiles and rails of sash, 
doors, and blinds is known as the mortise and tenon 
joint. 

In marking out the lines for the ]0\x\X.'& gauge from 
the face side. 

The face sides should be "in and up" — /. c, next 
to the wire screen. 

The joints are screwed from the back with y^ inch 
screws. No. 5. 

Before inserting the screws the frame is placed 
in a small cleated board, and the joints drawn to- 
gether by means of wedges. 

The narrow band that covers the edges of the 
wire screen is mitred at the corners and fastened to 
the frame with i/< inch nails. Fig. 21 is an isometric 
view of a section of the band, showing the method of 
marking out lines for the mitre. 

Tools used: — Plane, try-square, gauge, saw, chisel, 
gimlet, screw-driver, knife and hammer. 



For Gravnnar Schools. 



27 



Window Zcrtsz 



tflli 



Ffc^. \9. 



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28 Majiiial Ti^aiiiino^ Coiwse 



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Rough stock: — 2 pieces of pine, ^ in. by 1 in. 
by 1 1 ins. 
2 pieces of pine, yi in. by i in. 

b}^ 9 ins. 
2 pieces of basswood, yi in. by ^s 
in. by 10 ins. 
" •' 2 pieces of basswood, ].i in. by ^ 

in. by 8 ins. 
Screivs: — 12 screws 'i/i inch. No. 5. 
Nails:- — 14 nails ^ inch, No. 20. 
Wire screen. — i piece 6S/q ins. by 8^ ins. 

I 

MODEL X. 

A Key Board. 

This model is made ot thin basswood and round 
head brass nails. 

The drawing may be made of the separate parts 
as in Figs. 22 and 23, or in the case of the more apt 
pupils a drawing may be made of the completed 
piece as in Fig. 24. 

The curved lines of the arrow head are drawn 
freehand. After the arrow has been completed, a 
full-sized drawing of the shield should be made on a 
separate piece of paper, then this may be cut out 
and used as a pattern to mark out lines on the wood. 

The arrow and shield are fastened together with 
glue and round head brass nails. 

Tools used: — Try-square, compasses, knife, file and 
hammer. 

Rough stock: — I piece of basswood }i in. by 33^ in. 
by 4^ inches. 
" —I piece of basswood ^ in. by 134^ ins. 
by 10^ ins. 

Brass Nai/s: — 2 round head }4 in. long. No. 18. 
" " — 4 " " 2yi in. long. No. 18. 



For GrammaT- Schools. 



29 



Fiq 25 



Key Board. 





30 Manual Training Course 

MODEL XI. 

A Nail Box. 

The drawing of this model, which may be to 
scale Yz or ^, should show three views. In nailing 
the sides and ends together use 3/j^ inch nails, and 
for the bottom use ^ in. nails. The handle is of ash, 
and is secured to its place with five round head bi^ass 
nails in each end. Before attempting to bend the 
handle to its place it should be placed in water for 
a few minutes, or until it seems quite pliable. 

Tools used: — Plane, try-square, saw, brad-awl, ham- 
mer and nail set. 

Rough stock: — 2 pieces of pine, 3^ in. by 2 ins. by 
9 ins. 
" " — 3 pieces of pine 3,b in. by 2 ins. by 

Sy2 ins. 
" " — I piece of pine '^ in. by 5 ^i( ins. by 

8>< ins. 
" " — I piece of ash, ]/% in. by s^'^ in. by 
12 ins. 
Nails:— Yi in. No. 20, and ^ in. No. 18. 
^Brass Nails: — 10 round head brass nails, ^s in. 
long. No. 18. 

* Escutcheon pins. 

Large pieces of wood are boiled or steamed be- 
fore bending. The method ot bending wood depends 
upon the size of the piece and the kind of wood, hard 
wood requiring longer boiling or steaming. A piece 
of ash, say 2 ins. by 4 ins. in cross section, would 
require about six hours steaming with a low pressure 
of moist or wet steam, but it would not suffer dam- 
age if steamed for a day. If the wood is steamed 
too much it loses its elasticity and will pucker on the 
inside surface of the bend when in the form or bend- 



For Gram mar Sc/'tools. 





















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Manual Tj'ainino- Course 



i> 



ing block. Pieces not over half an inch thick may 
be bent after steaming them half an hour. 

One method of bendino^ wood, after steaming:, is 
to fasten on the outside or convex side of the piece, 
an iron strap that will prevent it from stretching. 
The piece with the strap on the outside is laid on the 
form or forming piece; this is then secured to an 
apparatus called a winch. The winch is provided 
with a rope whose ends have two hooks which are 
engaged in the eyes of the strap, and by operating 
the winch the piece is bent to shape. 



MODEL XIL 

Winding Strips. 

The drawing should show two views as in Fig. 25. 

The winding strips are two parallel pieces witli 
straight edges, used for testing the accuracy of plane 
surfaces. 

Winding is a term applied by joiners to a surface 
which is twisted so that all its parts do not lie in the 
same plane. To test whether the surface is reallv 
true, the winding strips are laid, one on each end of 
the piece of work. If the surface is true, the upper 
edges of the rulers will be found to be in the same 
plane. Fig. 26 shows the application of the winding 
strips. 

Tools used: — Plane, gauge, and Y^ inch bit. 

Rough stock: — 1 piece of black-walnut 3 8 in. by 
i^:j^ ins. by 12 ins. 
" — I piece of cherry 38 in. by x]/^ ins. 
by 12 ins. 



For Grammar Schools. 



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24 Manual Training Course 



MODEL XIII. 

Wall Bracket. 

Designs for wall brackets are numerous. Some are 
merely pieces of wood, cut as a shelf to fit a corner 
with or without more support than nails driven into 
the wall, or they may be made very ornamental and 
tasteful, according to one's skill and patience. 

This simple form is inti-oduced to show the prin- 
ciples on which they are made. The drawing should 
show three views : top view, front view and side 
view as shown in Figs. 27, 28 and 29. The outline 
of shelf support may be drawn freehand, see 
a Fig. 29. 

Tools used: — Plane, try-square, compasses, knife, 
file, % inch bit, hammer and nail-set. 

Rough stock:— I piece of pine i/( in. by 3>4 ins. 
by 8 ins. 
" " — I piece of pine % in. by 3^ ins. by 

3>^ ins. 
" " — I piece of pine % in. by 1% ins. by 
Z% ins. 
Nails:— I nails 3// in. No. 18— through back into 
shelf. 
" — I nail ^ in. No. 20 — through shelf into 
support. 



Fo7' Grammar Schools. 





















Wall Bracket. 






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;^6 Manual Training Coiirse 



MODEL XIV. 

A Triangle. 

This exercise is a 30° and 60° triangle. Used for 
drawing purposes. Two views of this model are 
shown in Fig. 30. To construct the triangle the 
pupil should follow the method shown in Fig, 31. 

Draw line AC, Fig. 31, to equal GH, Fig. 30. 
Bisect AC in B. With B as a centre and radius AB, 
draw arc CD. With centre C and same radius cut 
this arc in D. Draw AD, DAC = 30°. 

To draw a perpendicular to line AC from point 
C. With BC as a radius and D as a centre draw an 
arc over C, and draw a line through BD, producing 
it to meet this arc in E. Join CE, and CE is the 
perpendicular required. 

Tools used: — Compasses, knife, plane and V^^ in. bit. 

RougJi stock: — I piece of maple yi in. by 4 ins. 
by 7 ins. 



For Grammar Schools. 



37 




38 Manual Training Course 



MODEL XV. 

A 45 ' Triangle. 

The 45° triangle is made of the same material as- 
model No. 14. Used for drawing purposes. To 
construct this triangle, draw line AC, Fig. 33. to 
equal EF, Fig. 32. Bisect AC in B. With B as a 
centre and AB as a radius describe a semi-circle. 
Connect DA and DC, DAC = 45°. 

Tools used: — Compasses, knife, plane and bit. 

Rough stock: — I piece of maple ]i in. by 4 ins. 
by 7 ins. 

In ordering matei'ial for the triangles it will be 
well to furnish a pattern, cut to the right shape, but 
about yi inch wider and longer than the finished 
model. 



For Grammar Schools. 39 




40 Mam La I Train iiig Course 



MODEL XVI. 

A T-Square. 

The T-square is constructed of the same material 
as the triangles. The stock is y^ in. by i^ ins. by 6 
ins. and the blade is yi in. by i^ ins. by i6 ins. The 
blade is secured to the stock with the aid of glue and 
2-ound head brass nails. 

Tools used: — Plane, try-square, gauge, saw, chisel, 
file, )4 in. bit, and hammer. 

Rough stock: — i piece of maple yi in. by lYz ins. by 
i6j/ ins. 
" " — I piece of maple 3^ in. b}^ i^ ins. 
by 61/^ ins. 
Nail's: — 5, y^ in. brass nails, No. 18. 



For Grammar Schools. 



41 











T Sc^uare. 








■ 

"J 

r 








» 









' 


Ij..: 


> — //• — > 















42 Ala 1171 a I Training Coiirse 



MODEL XVII. 

Fancy Box. 

This model is made of thin basswood. The lines 
are drawn freehand. The pupil should make a draw- 
ing showing a view of the side of the box as in Fig. 
34, and a section showing position of the bottom as 
in Fig. 35. An isometric view is shown in Fig. 36. 

The bottom of the box is made of the same ma- 
terial as the sides, and is fastened to its place with 
the aid of four narrow strips of paper and glue. The 
corners are held together with "baby" ribbon. 

Tools used: — Knife and gimlet. 

Rough stock: — 4 pieces of basswood Y^ in. by 4 ins. 
by A]i ills. 
" " — I piece of basswood }i in. by 3^ 
ins. by y/% ins. 

Ribbon: — 27^ yards. 



For Grammaj' Schools. 



43 



Foncy Be 




Rq. 36. 




Fiq. 34. 



44 Manual Training Cotirse 

MODEL XVIII. 

A Sun-DiaL 

The dial consists of a piece of thin basswood cut 
out in the form of an octagon ; this is stiffened by 
means of a cleat fastened to the back. The dial is 
held to the proper angle by the triangular piece a, 
Fig. 37. The circumterence of the circle on the face 
of the dial is divided into twenty-four equal parts, 
numbered from one to twelve, twice over, as in Fig. 38. 
In the centre is a fixed straight post called a style, 
which must be perpendicular to the face of the dial. 
The accurac}' of the dial depends on this, and on 
its being placed so that the style points in the same 
direction as the ear t lis axis. This may be brought 
about by fixing the dial so that the angle between 
the horizontal line BC, Fig. 37, and the style just 
equals the latitude of the place. This can be done 
by finding the latitude on a map, then deducting this 
from the number of degrees in a right angle gives 
the angle for the piece a, Fig. 37. The angle may be 
constructed with the aid of a protractor. The lines 
for the triangular piece a, Fig. 37, should be drawn 
on the wood as in Fig. 40. 

The method of constructing the octagon is shown 
in Fig. 39. 

After the model is finished it may be fixed in 
position. The base must be horizontal, and the dial 
placed, with the aid of a compass, so that the style 
points due north. 



For Gi^aiiDiiar Schools. 



45 




Fig^a 



4-6 ManiLal Training Course 

Another method of finding- the proper angle, and 
fixing the dial in position, is to drill a small hole 
through the plate, close to the style, and then, on a 
clear night, the dial is so placed that by looking- 
through this hole the north star is brought into line 
with the style. 

" With warning hand I mark time's rapid flight 
From life's glad morning to the solemn night ; 
Yet, through the dear God's love, I also show 
There's light above me by the shade below." — j. G. w. 

Sun-dials are now seldom met with, though in 
some parts of Europe we may still occasionally see 
one fixed to the south side of an old church or stand- 
ing as an ornament in the garden, but at one time 
were much more common, and before clocks were 
invented were almost the only means of measuring 
time with any approach to accuracy. The instru- 
ment has been in use from the earliest times. The 
Hebrews were acquainted with it at least seven cen- 
turies before the Christian era. In the book of Isaiah 
we find mention of the sun-dial, " Behold I will bring- 
again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down 
in the sun-dial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward. So 
the sun returned ten degrees, by which degrees it 
was gone down " — ISAIAH xxxviii : 8. 

In England down as late as the seventeenth cen- 
tury no mathematical treatises were so common as 
those on dialling. The dial, of course, labors under 
the disadvantage of not being of any use in cloudy 
weather or after sunset. 



For Grammar Schools. 47- 

It registers only the hours of sunshine, and hence 
in very early times it was customary to calculate the 
hours of night from some prominent star. Arago 
tells us that the Abbot of Cluny consulted the stars 
when he wished to know the time for midnight pray- 
ers ; at other times a monk remained awake, and in 
order to measure the lapse of time, repeated certain 
psalms, having learnt by experiment how many he 
could say in an hour. 

There was also a kind of water clock called 
Clepsydra (watcr-stealer), which was a vase filled with 
water with a small opening in the bottom through 
which the water dripped drop by drop into a vessel 
beneath, which was thus said to steal the water. 
The side of the vase was divided into spaces by lines, 
and the height of the water in it marked the time. 

Instruments like our hour-glasses were also used^ 
in which the time was measured by the running out 
of sand. 

King Alfred, the Great, is said to have marked 
time by the gradual burning down of candles col- 
ored in rings. 

Tools 7ised: — Compasses, knife, plane, try-square, 
file, brad-awl, gimlet and hammer. 

Rough stock: — i piece of basswood yi in. by 7 ins. 
by 7 ins. 
" " — I piece of pine % in. by 5}^ ins. by 

51^ ins. 
" — 3 pieces of pine ]^ in. by i in. by 
jYi ins. 

Nails: — y2 inch. No. 20, and }^ inch. No. 18. 



48 



Manual Training Course 




? *^^ 
C:?^^'':: 









HALF-ROUND FILE. SOCKET FIRMER CHISEL. TANG FIRMER CHISEL. 



For Grammar Schools. 49 

DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS. 
Measuringf Role. 

The rule is a straight piece of wood, twelve inches 
loner, and gradiuitcd to eighths and sixteenths. It 
serves as a guide in drawing straight lines, and 
measuring off short distances. 

The English foot (in use in the United States) 
contains 12 inches and is equal to 30.48 centimeters. 
It seems to have lengthened since the time of Henry 
VII. The feet in use in different countries before 
the introduction of the metric system, varied from 
9 to 21 inches. 

The standard is kept at Washington and was 
copied from the English standard which is kept at 
London. 

In teaching pupils the use of the rule in measuring- 
and marking off their work, be careful to impress them, that 
in any undertaking, preparation is an important factor 
in arriving at accuracy — to refrain from guessing and all 
guess ivork. 

Lowell has told us, that — 

" Folks that worked thorough was the folks that thriv, 
But bad work follers ye ez long's ye live. 
Ye can't get rid on't just as sure as sin, 
Its allers askin' to be done agin." 



so AlaniLal Trai^iino- Coiwse 



<b 



Planes. 

The plane is a tool for smoothing, truing and fin- 
ishing woodwork. The essential parts of a plane are 
a stock or frame of wood or metal, having a smooth, 
concave or convex sole or face, and a throat in which is 
placed a steel cutter called the cutter or bit. Various 
devices are used to keep the cutter in position in the 
stock, the most simple being a wedge oi wood. 
Planes are made in a great variety of shapes and 
sizes, and range in size from 3 to 30 inches in length. 
Nearly all are distinguished by names having refer- 
ence to the particular kind of work for which they 
are designed, as the sinoothing-plane, jack-plane, fore- 
plane, jointcr-planc, block-plane and a great variety of 
planes for forming mouldings, etc. 

The Japanese planes are small with no handles. 
The planes are shorter, lighter, and the stock shal- 
lower than ours, being generally not more than one 
inch deep. To plane a piece of wood they lay it on 
the ground, squat down, hold it fast with their toes, 
and work the plane by drawing it with both hands 
toward them. 

Some of their tools appear to be mere children's 
t03's ; for instance they have a smoothing plane two 
and one-half inches long, one inch broad, and half 
an inch thick. 

Block Plane. 

This tool is used chiefly tor planing across the 
ends of boards, or of blocks (across the grain) and in 



For Graimuar Schools. 



51 



fitting close joints. On small work, if the wood is 
soft and straight grained, the block-plane may be 
used as a smoothing-plane for planing with the grain. 




BLuCK HLANE. 



The pitch of the cutter is less than in ordinary 
bench planes, and the cutter is used with the bevel 
uppermost at the cutting edge, to further aid in cut- 
ting across the grain of the wood. The cutter is 
•clamped in place by means of the lever which is 
attached to cap. The pressure exerted by this lever 
is regulated by turning the slotted screw, near lower 
•end of cap. 

To release cap and cutter move lever to the right. 
The lever, when in position to hold the cutter to its 
place, should be parallel with side of plane. 

It sometimes happens in replacing cutter and cap, 
that difficulty is experienced in bringing the lever 
back to its proper position. This is usually because 
the tooth on inner end of lower lever has not found 
its place in the groove on underside of cutter. 

The thickness of shaving is regulated by means 
•of the thumb-screw and lever beneath the upper end 



52 Manual Training Coitrse 

of cutter. Turning the thumb-screw to the left forces 
the cutter down, turning to the right draws it up. 

The long lever, immediately beneath the cutter, is 
for adjusting the cutter sidewise, to set the cutting 
edge parallel with the sole or face of plane. The 
opening in the sole of plane is called the throat. 
The width of the throat is regulated by aid of the 
eccentric plate under the brass knob. By moving 
the eccentric plate to the right or to the left the 
throat can be closed or opened as coarse or fine work 
may require. A single turn of the knob will loosen 
or fasten the plate. For ordinary work the throat 
should be about ^^ of an inch wide. For cross- 
grained wood, the space should be as small as will 
permit of free passage for shavings. If throat of 
plane becomes clogged, take it apart, never attempt 
to remove chips or shavings by pushing them out. 

Try Sqware. 

The trv-square consists of a thin blade of steel 
with parallel edges, fitted and riveted in and at right 
angles to the stock. The stock is generally a piece 
of rosewood or cast-iron shorter than the blade. The 
size of squares are reckoned by the length in inches 
of the blade. t 

The most important point in the construction of 
a square is the right angle between the stock and 
blade. Try-squares are very frequently ruined by 



For Grani7itar Schools. 53 

using them to drive tacks, or brads, and by dropping, 
which " knocks then:i out of square." 

To test a square let the broad side of the blade 
rest on the plane surface of a board, and the stock 
against a perfectly straight edge. Draw a fine line 
across the board and along the outer edge of the 
blade. The square is then reversed, the stock is 
placed as before, and the edge of blade is placed 
close to the line previously made. Another line is 
then drawn along the edge of blade as before. If 
this line is perfectly parallel with that made first, the 
square is true. 

The try-square is used for describing right angles, 
and testing the trutJi of work. The square was re- 
garded in ancient times as the sign of perfection. 

In giving the application and uses of the square, the 
teacher might depict the beauty of truth in every relation 
in life, (i) at home, (2) in school, (3) in business. Shozv 
how embarrassment and loss are caused l>y hastiness and 
carelessness of truth. 

Compasses. 

Is an instrument for describing circles, or for 
measuring figures, distances between two points, etc. 
Also called dividers. 

Knife. 

The pocket knife is a very important tool and one 
of the first to be placed in the hands of a beginner. 
It is, therefore, important to select one of the best 
quality, and it should have two blades. 



54 Manual Training Course 

The knife, which requires a stiff edge, must be held 
when sharpening on an oilstone at an angle of 20°^ 
or 25°. Should the blade be laid flat on the stone the 
edge is made too thin, and consequently the edge will 
appear hrittle or become dull v^er}^ quickly. 

The joints should be oiled occasionally, as they 
are liable to become rough and hollow, thereby caus- 
ing the points of the blades to protrude. 

File. 

A steel instrument for smoothing surfaces, and 
having raised cutting edges (teeth) made by the in- 
dentions of a chisel. 

Files are mentioned in I Samuel, xiii : 21, 1093 B. C, 
" They had a file for the mattocks, and for the coulters,, 
and for the forks, and for the axes, and to sharpen the 
goads." 

Files are graded by shape, size, and by fineness of 
cut. 

The shape or style of file is distinguished by cer- 
tain technical names, as, for instance, yf^;/, round, half- 
round, threc-sqnare, &c. 

The terms single cut, double cut, and rasp have ref- 
erence to the character of the teeth. 

The terms rough, coarse, bastard, 2nd cut and smooth 
have reference only to the coarseness of the teeth. 

The rough and coarse are adapted to files used upon 
soft metals, as lead, pewter, &c., and, to some extent^ 
upon wood. 



Foi' Graiumar Schools. 55 

Files having two courses of chisel cuts crossing- 
each other are called double cut. 

The length of files is always measured exclusively 
of their tang. 

The file selected for the desk top outfit is known 
as a double cut, half round. 

The approximate number of cuts in an inch of file 
varies from 56, in the 4 inch rough, to 216 cuts in the 
4 inch superfine. 

The Back Saw. 

This saw is used for cutting across the fibres, and 
only for light, fine work. To stiffen the blade, its 
upper edge is enclosed in an iron back. 

The handle is of apple-wood. 

The size of saw teeth is expressed by the number 
of points — teeth points — contained in an inch. 

Cross-Cut Saw. 

The cross-cut saw is designed for cutting across 
the fibres, and in order to prevent pinching or bind- 
ing, it divides each fibre in two places at once, leaving 
a path or " kerf" for the blade to run in and the ma- 
terial to fall out through. 

If you undertook to divide a board in two cross- 
wise by successive knife-cuts, you would soon find 
the necessity for having a groove at least as wide as 
the thickness of the blade; and this could be accom- 
plished only by severing each fibre twice ; making 



56 Mamial Training Course 

two parallel cuts between which the material was 
removed to leav^e the kerf. 

Every other tooth of the cross-cut saw is beveled 
to right and to left so as to help make the right hand 
or the left hand score. The filing should be so 
accurate that a needle could be slid along the groove 
left between or formed by the beveled tooth edges. 

It is the outside edge of each tooth that does the 
cutting. 

Rip-Saw. 

The rip-saw is used for cutting in the direction of 
the length of the fibres. The angle of the teeth is 
more acute than that of the cross-cut saw, and filed 
straight across, or when filing the file is held at right 
angles to the blade. The teeth of the rip-saw are like 
a series of narrow chisels, and if we should attempt 
to use it as a cross-cut saw to cut across a thin board 
it would tear and destroy the wood. 

History of the Saw. 

Saws of the bronze age have been discovered in 
Germany and Denmark. The metal was cast thin, 
and probably was notched on the edge by chipping 
and grinding. 

Saws of the stone age were made by setting flakes 
of flint in wooden handles and securing with mineral 
pitch. The saw is a very old device, as old as a 
knife with a ragged edge. 

The ancient Egyptian blade was of bronze, at- 



For Grammar Schools. 57 

tached to the handles b}^ leathern thongs and was 
single handed. Some of the blades, however, are 
set into the handles with tangs, like our case-knives. 

Japanese saws are shaped like butchers' cleavers. 
The handle is flattisli, as if whittled out of a piece of 
inch board ; the shank of the saw is driven into the 
handle, and the whole is secured by being wrapped 
with fine split cane. The metal of the saw is about 
the substance of our saws, but the teeth are nar- 
rower, giving more of them to an inch and much 
longer. The teeth are pointed toward the handle. 
When a Japanese wants to rip a plank, he places it 
across anything which will elevate the end a few 
inches, then stands on the wood and cuts by seizing 
the cleaver-looking saw in both hands, and pulling it 
toward him, working it by short, quick, up-strokes. 

Formerly the larger portion of our saws came 
from Shef^eld, England, but Philadelphia, Pittsburgh 
Cincinnati and other places make them of the best 
quality and from American steel of American iron. 

Making a saw involves the following processes; 

1. Cutting out the blade from the sheet. 

2. Toothing with a press and appropriately 
formed dies. 

3. Hardening by plunging while heated in an oil 
bath. In this state the metal is extremely brittle. 

4. Tempering and straightening; the latter is 
effected by hammering on an anvil or by compress- 
ing several blades, while hot, between two dies 
worked by a hydraulic press. 



58 Alamial Training Course 

5. Grinding- and polishing- with emery-powder. 

6. Filing and setting the teeth. 

7. Reheating to restore the elasticity lost in tem- 
pering. 

8. Removing the scale by immersion, first in 
dilute acid, and afterwards in alkali to remove the 
acid. 

9. The handle is attached and the blade tested. 

Brad Awl. 

The simplest form of boring tool is the awl. It 
consists of a piece of small steel rod, with one end 
fastened in a wooden handle, and the other doubly 
beveled to a sharp edge. The use of the awl is to 
prepare holes for the admission of nails and screws. 

Its greatest drawback is the ease with which 
the awl may be broken. When holes are to be bored 
with the brad-awl, the edge should be placed across 
the grain of the wood. 

Hammer. 

A tool for driving nails, beating metal and the 
like. 

The hammer selected for the desk top is known 
as a riveting hammer. It is used by both metal and 
wood workers for light work. 

Tools of metal, of which the hammer was among- 
the first, must have been in use for many centuries. 
Tubal Cain, the descendant in the sixth generation 



For Grammar Schools. 59 

from Cain, was an "artificer in brass and iron"; cop- 
per, probably, rather than brass. Brass and bronze 
are not distinguished from each other by name, either 
in Greek or Latin. 

The first form was perhaps a stone fastened to a 
handle, many such are found in the relics of the 
stone age, before man had learned the use of metal. 

In the Bible we read of hammers for nails, forg- 
ing, and for breaking stone. 

Modern hammers are of many shapes and kinds. 
The parts are the handle and head. The latter has an 
eye, face, peen, or claw. 

Nail Set. 

The nail-set, or punch as it is sometimes called, 
is simph^ a piece of tapering steel, used with the 
hammer to drive the heads of nails below the surface 
■of the wood they are in. To avoid slipping, the 
point is made hollow. Nail-sets with hollow points 
are the best. Several sizes are made to suit the 
various nails. 

Chisel. 

An edged tool for cutting wood. It is operated 
by striking its upper end with a mallet or by press- 
ure. Mr. Burton, an Englishman, found at Thebes, 
and deposited in the British Museum, a carpenter's 
basket and a kit of tools which have survived their 
owner some thirty centuries. 



6o Manual Training Course 

Chisels of early Egypt were of bronze, the handles 
of tamarisk. In some cases the blades were attached 
b)' thongs to the handles. 

The knife must be regarded as the primary tool, 
and the chisel as a strong knife sharpened and pre- 
sented endwise. 

The chisels and gouges of the Tahitians when 
first discovered were of bone, generally that of a 
man's arm between the wrist and elbow. The bone 
tools disappeared in a few years after the adv^ent of 
the white man. 

The chisel used in this course is ^s inch wide and 
known as a tang firmer chisel and should be used 
only for fine work. The handle is made of apple- 
wood. 

Carpenters use other, and heavier chisels, one 
kind is known as the socket firmer, and the other as a 
mortise chisel. The socket-firmer is employed in all 
kinds of carpenter work. 

The mortise chisel is made much heavier than the 
socket firmer, and is used in connection with the 
mallet for making mortises. 

Marking Gauge. 

The gauge is a tool for marking on the work lines 
parallel to the edge. The gauge consists of two 
pieces of wood, the stem or beam and the stock or 
head with a thumb-screw in the latter, which when 
tightened, holds the head firmly in any desired posi- 



For Grammar Schools. 6i 

tion on the beam. The spur is a piece of steel wire 
fitted in the beam, the cutting or marking end being 
filed to a wedge, the side farthest from the head 
should be straight, and as nearly as possible parallel 
to the side of the head. The inner side of the spur 
should be slightly rounded. When both sides of the 
spur are filed straight across or parallel to side of 
the head, the tendency of the gauge is to run off or 
make poor lines. 

With a properly filed and adjusted spur the gauge 
should act easily and make clean lines. The spur 
should only project sufficiently to produce a line 
clear enough to work by, otherwise it will not be 
suitable for accurate work. 

Pliers. 

A small pair of pinchers with jaws flat on the 
inner side (called flat jawed pliers), which are "file 
cut" to enable them to take fast hold of small pieces 
of metal to be filed, bent, etc. 

The knife-like edges on one side are intended for 
cutting wire, or a narrow strip of thin metal. 

Pliers with peculiarly shaped or proportioned 
jaws are called round-nosed pliers, long-nosed pliers, 
cutting pliers, etc. 

Gimlet. 

The gimlet of the Greeks had the cross-head or 
handle of the style now in common use. The earliest 
specimens found, are of the hollow pod style, with- 



62 Manual Training Course 

out the screw point, and it demanded a large ex- 
penditure of muscle. In course of time the screw 
point was added. 

The twisted or spiral form of gimlet is an Ameri- 
can invention. 

The screw point serves to give a hold at first, and 
gradually to draw the tool deeper into the work. In 
boring holes with the gimlet near the edge or in thin 
wood, it is best to use very little pressure, and to 
give a quick movement to the handle. " Crowding " 
the gimlet is very likely to split the work. 

Clamp. 

A device for temporarily holding the parts of a 
piece of work while being operated upon. Also for 
holding glued joints while the glue is hardening. 
The st3'le of clamp used in desk top outfit is made of 
malleable iron and is quite strong. 

Sandpaper. 

This is a stout paper coated with hot glue and 
then sprinkled with sharp sand of different degrees 
of fineness. The different grades are designated as 
ooo, GO, o, Yi, I, i^, 2, 2^, and 3. The latter num- 
ber is very coarse. 

Glasspaper is fine kind of sandpaper made of 
powdered glass. 



Fo7^ Graviinar Schools, 63 



NOTES ON WOODS USED IN DESK TOP 
COURSE. 

White Pine. 

This is the most useful and indispensable tree of 
the American forests, affording a timber of greatest 
value for many uses, as for finishing, interior work, 
doors, sash, blinds, clapboards, shingles, and is used 
in pattern making because of the comparatively small 
degree to which it shrinks and swells owing to changes 
in the atmosphere. 

It is found from Newfoundland to the Winnipeg 
River, southward through the northern states and 
along the Allegheny Mountains to Georgia. Its 
finest growth is in the region of the great lakes. 

The wood is soft, light, compact, and easily worked. 
It contains very little resin. 

The tall, straight trunks of the pine extend up- 
wards perhaps a hundred feet to a limb, thence sky- 
ward, with a crown of dark evergreen foliage, graceful 
and majestic. 

Basswood (Lime, Linden)* 

Basswood is found throughout a wide range of 
the United States and Europe, and has many vari- 
eties. In some localities it is called linden, and lime- 
tree. It grows to a magnificent size, bearing smooth, 
heart-shaped leaves, and having fragrant flowers 



64 JManiial Training Course 

which are favorites with the bees. The foliage is 
dense, and in Europe it is used very extensively for 
ornamental planting. 

In Russia the inner bark of the basswood is made 
into textile fabrics, cordage, and the like. 

The wood is yellowish-white, soft and light, but 
moderately close-grained and tough. It is used in 
cabinet work and for the panels of carriages. 

Tulip Tree (Poplar, White Wood). 

This wood is quite variable in weight, usually 
light, soft, stiff, but not strong, of fine texture and 
yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but 
seasons without much injury, works and stands well. 
In some localities it is Used for siding, for panelling 
and finishing lumber in house, car and ship building, 
for side-boards and panels of wagons and carriages; 
also in the manufacture of furniture, implements, and 
machinery, for pump-logs, and almost every kmd of 
common wooden ware, boxes, drawers, etc.' An ideal 
wood for the carver and toyman. It grows to a large 
size, and is found from New England to Missouri and 
southward to Florida. 

The cucumber tree resembles and is often con- 
founded with tulip wood in the markets. 

The Ash. 

The ash is a rapid grower, and is found in almost 
all our broad-leaved forests. The wood is heavy, hard. 



For Grammar Schools. 65 

strong, stiff, quite tough, not durable in contact with 
soil, straight-grained, rough on the split surface, and 
coarse in texture. Takes a good finish. 

In carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber, used 
in shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons, 
carriages, etc.; in the manufacture of farm imple- 
ments, machinery and furniture of all kinds, and also 
for barrels, baskets, oars, and ball-bats. 

The wood of second-growth white ash has, per- 
haps, no equal for lightness, elasticity and strength. 

The black ash grows chiefly in swamps through- 
out the eastern, northern, and north-western states. 
The wood is not so valuable as that of the white ash. 

Cherry. 

The lumber furnishing cherry of this country, 
wild black cherry, is a medium sized tree scattered 
through many of the broad-leaved woods of the west- 
ern slope of the Alleghenies, and is also found from 
Michigan to Florida and west to Texas. 

In a rich soil it grows rapidly and forms one of 
the most valued of our native woods. It almost 
equals mahogan}-, which it in some degree resembles 
when darkened by age. 

It is chiefly used for finishing lumber for buildings, 
cars, and boats, also for furniture. 

The wood is heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture, 
color reddish brown. It works and stands well, takes 
a good polish, and is much esteemed for its beauty. 



66 Manual Training Course 

Black Walnut. 

Walnut wood is heavy, hard, strong, of coarse 
texture ; the sapwood is whitish, the heartwood choco- 
late-brown. It works and stands well, takes a good 
polish, is quite handsome, and has been for a long 
time the favorite cabinet-wood in this countr}'. Wal- 
nut, formerly used even for fencing and railroad ties, 
has become scarce and too costly for ordinar}^ pur- 
poses, and is to-day used largely as a veneer, for inside 
finish and cabinet work ; also in turnery, for gunstocks, 
etc. Black walnut is a large tree, with stout trunk, 
of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant 
throughout the Allegheny region, occurring from 
New England to Texas and from Michigan to Florida. 

Maple. 

Wood heavy, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine text- 
ure, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to 
^' curly " and "blister" figure; not durable in the 
ground or otherwise exposed. Maple is creamy 
white, with shades of brown in the heart, wears 
smoothly and takes a fine polish. The wood is used 
for ceiling, flooring, pannelling, and other finishing- 
lumber in house, ship, and car construction; it is 
used for the keels of boats and ships, in the manu- 
facture of implements and machinery, and for furni- 
ture. Maple is also used for shoe lasts and other 
form-blocks, for shoe-pegs, for piano actions, school 
apparatus, for wood type in show-bill printing, tool 



L ofC. 



For G^'ammai" Schools. 67 

handles, in wood carving- and turnery. The maples 
are medium-sized trees and of fairly rapid growth. 

The su^ar-maple is sometimes called hard-maple 
and rock-maple. The silver maple is often called 
soft-maple. The wood of this tree is lighter, softer 
and inferior to hard-maple. 



HISTORY OF WOOD SCREWS. 



According to " Tomlinson's Cyclopedia " volume 
IV, 1852, "the blanks for (wood) screws were for- 
merly forged by the nail makers, they being nearly 
the same as the countersunk clout nails, except that 
the ends are not pointed. The blanks were next 
made out of round rolled iron cut to the required 
lengths, the heads being formed by pinching them 
while red-hot between a pair of dies, and the threads 
were cut by means of a file." 

The screws referred to in the foregoing were 
doubtless blunt-pointed, but gimlet-pointed screws 
were undoubtedly made as early as 1755. 

" Gimlet-Pointed Wood Screws. — Mechanics of 
adult age can easily remember when gimlet-pointed 
screws came into use, within the last thirty years, 
superseding the blunt pointed ones before used, and 
the former have been considered a modern inven- 
tion. But we have seen this morning a half dozen 
screws with excellent gimlet points which were taken 



68 



Alanual Trainincr Course 



from an old piano and bear unmistakable evidences 
of age and of having been made before screws 
were made by machinery. The piano is inscribed 
'Jacobus Kirckman, Fecit, Londini, 1755' and the 
screws are doubtless of that date. The most curious 
point in the case is that after such screws as these 
had once been made mechanics should have gone on 
using square pointed screws for nearly a century. — 
{Worcester Gazette.)'' 

The earliest known pub- 
lic exhibit of gimlet-pointed 
wood screws in this country 
was that on a sample card of 
wood screws made by Japy 
Freres, Beaucourt, France, 
imported bv INIessrs. Fish, 
Grinnell & Co., for the late 
Jonathan Congdon, Esq., 
hardware merchant, of Pro- 
vidence, R. I. These screws 
may have been produced 
in France upon x\merican 
machinery, which was sent 
in 1835 from Poughkeepsie, 
N. v., to Japy Freres. 




BLUNT POINTED 
SCREW. 



GIMLET-POINTED 
SCREW. 



In United States patent No. 154, of March 30^ 
1837, granted Sloat (of Ramapo, New York), and 
Springsteen (of Poughkeepsie, New York), for a 



For Grammar Schools. 69 

wood screw threading machine, are the following 
words : " So that the screw may be made a gradual 
taper or all the way of a size, or give it an acute 
taper at the point, making what we call ' gimlet 
points' or any other shape desired." 

It may, therefore, be conclusively stated that gim- 
let-pointed screws are extremely old, and that the 
inventor of them has never as yet been named, 
although many special forms of gimlet points for 
screws have JDcen invented and patented in the United 
States and elsewhere during the past sixty years. 



NAILS. 



In the beginning of the nineteenth century nails 
were ordinarily manufactured by hand forging, 
usually by women and children. 

Nail machinery originated and developed chiefly 
in the United States. This was a natural result of 
the universal use of wood for buildings. 

In the old hand-working days some of the nail- 
makers became, through constant practice, very 
expert at the trade. It is on record that a workman 
in Smethwick, England, made in two weeks 40800 
nails. To accomplish this wonderful feat he had to 
heat his nail iron 42836 times, to weld together large 
numbers of short bits of iron and to strike each nail 
25 blows. 



JO 



Mamial Trainins' Coin^se 



Steel wire nails which have taken the place of cut 
nails are a French invention. They have great hold- 
ing power, though they are light and smooth. 

The old English term " penny," as applied to nails, 
is understood to mean a certain number of pounds to 
the thousand nails, as, for example, "six penny" 
means 6 pounds to the thousand nails ; " ten penny " 
means lo pounds to the thousand nails. The term 
" penny " when used to mark the size of nails is sup- 
posed to be a corruption of the word "pound." 



For Gratmnar Schools. 



71 



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CONTENTS. 



Description of the Desk Top, 3-5 

Introduction, - - - 6-7 

Awl, - - - - - 58 

Ash, 64 

Basswood, - - - -63 
Back Saw, - - - "55 

Black Walnut, - - - 66 

Cherry, • - - - 65 

Chisel, - - - - - 59 
" Tang and Socket Firmer, 48 

Clamp, - - - - - 62 

Compasses, - - - - 53 

Cross-cut Saw, - - - 55 

Emery Cloth, - - - 8 

File, - - - - - 48 

Files, - - - - - 54 

Gimlet, - - - - - 61 

Glasspaper, - - - 62 

Glue, . . - - - 8 

Hammer, - - - - 58 

Knife, 53 

Lead Pencil, - - - 8 



Lumber, How to order, - 7 

Marking Gauge, - - 60 

Maple, - - - - - 66 

Measuring Rule, - - 49 

Nail Set, - - - - 59 

Nails, How to order, - 8 

" Number per Pound, - 71 

Nails, - - - - 69 

Planes, - - - - - 50 

Plane, Description of the 

Block, - • - 50-52 

Pliers, • - - - - 61 

Pine, 63 

Poplar, - • - - - 64 

Rip Saw, - - - - 56 

Rust (see Emery Cloth), ■ 8 

Sandpaper, - - - 62 

- - J - 8 

Screws, How to order, - 8 

Screw, History of the, - 67-69 

Saw, History of the, - 56-58 

Try Square, - - - - 52 



Model T. Flower Pot Stand, - - - - - - 10 

" II. A Form, ...... ^ 12 

" HI. A Frame for a Vine, ------ 14 

" IV. Hexagonal Back for a Calendar, - - _ 16 

" V. Bandilore, ........ iS 

" VI. Centering Gauge, ------ 20 

VII. Plumb. Rule, - - 22 

VIII. Bench Hook, ------ 24 

" IX. Window Screen, - - - - - - 26 

" X. Key Board, -....-. 28 

XI. Nail Box, ----- . - . 30 

" XII. Winding Strips, ------ 32 

XIII. Wall Bracket, - - - - - - - 34 

" XIV. 30" and 60° Triangle, . . - _ . 36 

" XV. 45' Triangle, -...-.. 38 

• " XVI. T- Square, -.-.... 40 

" XVII. A Fancy Box, r . - . - - - - - 42 

XVIII. Sun Dial, 44 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



013 973 700 3 • 



